Person-centred approach - Carl Rogers Essay Example for Free

Person-centred approach Carl Rogers test

The Meaning of Suffering Essay Example for Free

The Meaning of Suffering EssayWe must never forget that we may also find consequence in life even when confronted with a hopeless situation, when facing a component part that cannot be modifyd. For what then matters is to bear witness to the uniquely human potential at its best, which is to transform a personal tragedy into triumph, to turn ones predicament into a human achievement. When we are no longer suitable to change a situationjust think of an incurable disease such(prenominal) as inoperable cancerwe are challenged to change ourselves. Let me cite a clear cut example Once, an elderly general practitioner consulted me because of grim depression. He could not overcome the loss of his wife who had died two years before and whom he had love above all else. Now, how could I help him? What should I tell him? Well, I refrained from telling him anything but sooner confronted him with the question, What would have happened, Doctor, if you had died first, and your wife would have had to survive you? Oh, he said, for her this would have been terrible how she would have suffered Whereupon I replied, You check, Doctor, such a wo(e) has been spared her, and it was you who have spared her this suffering to be sure, at the price that now you have to bemoan her. He said no word but shook my hand and calmly left my office. In some way, suffering ceases to be suffering at the moment it finds a meaning, such as the meaning of sacrifice. Of course this was no therapy in the proper sense since, first, his despair was no disease and second, I could not change his fate I could not revive his wife. But in that moment I did gain in changing his attitude toward his unalterable fate inasmuch as from that time on he could at least see a meaning in his suffering. It is one of the basic tenets of logotherepy that mans main concern is not to gain pleasure or to avoid pain but rather to see a meaning in his life.That is why man is even ready to suffer, on the condition , to be sure, that his suffering has a meaning There are situations in which one is cut off from the opportunity to do ones work or enjoy ones life but what can never be ruled bulge is the unavoidability of suffering. In accepting this challenge to suffer bravely, life has a meaning up to the in the end moment, and it retains this meaning literally to the end. In other words, lifes meaning is an unconditional one, for it even includes the potential meaning of ineluctable suffering Victor Frankl in Mans Search for Meaning (pg 112-115)

Thinking Critically †Poverty and Happiness Essay Example for Free

Thinking Critic eachy Poverty and Happiness EssayThis paper takes the panorama that impoverishment is not necessarily equated with deficiency of delight. Arguments supportive of this thesis argon presented in this paper piece being balance by arguments of the opposite view un little with counter arguments to strengthen the position taken. ane of best arguments that could be forwarded in support of the proposition taken is that nation from poor countries are happier than from wealthier countries. small-arm almost countries want to have stinting progress as a battle cry of globalization, it may not necessarily mean that countries are also regainking happiness after. It could be misleading to wall that wealth is synonymous with happiness or expressed the other way, that poverty is synonymous with lack of happiness. The rootage argument to show lack of human relationship between wealth and happiness is the higher(prenominal) incidents of self-annihilations among rich er countries than those from poor countries. If virtuoso compares a poor country like Philippines compared with richer countries like capital of Singapore, Japan, Australia and US, sensation could serious see on that point are to a greater extent pack committing suicides in richer countries despite the higher standard of nutriment from the latter countries (WHO, 2008).If economic easy being is an assurance of happier well being then why is the big difference in the issuing of deaths by suicides? Suicide is a voluntary or self inflicted and utter event is a verbalism of lack of happiness. Psychologists would agree that happiness is difficult to footfall unless they would not disagree that suicide is a proof of lack of happiness and willingness to continue in life. It give the axe be argued that the pressure to acquire more material wealth in more developed countries has created its own consequences.To cite an example, Singapores speedy economic success appears to have it s social cost as a price. Life in said country has become a rat race for battalion who open firenot just easily acquire resources for living as others. Think Centre (2007) cited the fear of being retrenched in job as a issuance of restructuring that could push the person to commit suicide. Singapore is noted to have a suicide rate higher than country like Thailand when life is reported to be frequently more comfortable in Singapore (Think Centre, 2007) .What could explain these things are the facts that the Singaporeans tend be striving harder, less tolerant of failures and overly materialistic (Think Centre, 2007). given this situation it would be easy to establish the lack of connection between wealth (or poverty) and happiness (or lack of it). As a result of high-pressure living, the economic growth has not spread happiness to all hard-pressed Singaporeans. Many citizens do not have retirement savings and have been advised to operate beyond 765 years to survive in this expe nsive city (Think Centre, 2007).Blinkered Thinker,( n. d) cited the case of the southeast Asian country of Myanmar , which borders Bangladesh, India, China, and Thailand, and which is among the poorest countries on the globe. Poverty was indeed found in Yangon as well as Myanmar but people in said places are noted to be the most hospitable and helpful tourist on earth with their smiles beating those of Thailand. It was therefore admitted that wealth can reduce privation and some of the unnecessary sources of unhappiness, but happiness is a mood and not an economic state. (Blinkered Thinker, n. d.) This again confirms earlier statement that wealth is economic man happiness is social. It was that observed that in Myanmar that about 85% of the Burmese (Myanmar) people institutionalise a form of Buddhism, which teaches that people happiness is attainable only by forsaking worldly desires (Blinkered Thinker, n. d. ). In this sense, materialism has become a contradiction of happiness. Zhang (2005) has argued that economics has failed to address this integrity fundamental issue until this precise day. The author argued that happiness depends not so much on absolute wealth as copulation wealth.There appears to be trade off actually between happiness and wealth as people would do more work for increase in wages but they will receive less leisure in return (Zhang, 2005). This could be easy to understand as wealth is material while happiness is social (Zhang, 2005), thus, thus the dickens need not go together. What is said by one person that he or she is quick does not necessarily mean what is really meant. Asking a person on whether he or she is happy may not necessarily give the even up answer as one could lie to hide guilt or deny the miserable whim inside.In response to a study which tries to show a correlation between happiness and wealth (Wolfers, 2008), Arthur Engel, a blogger, who is a psychoanalyst from Brazil pointed out the difference between being happy and tell that one is happy. In admitting about the difficulty of measuring whether someone is happy or not, he criticized the regularity of asking respondent as not a honest method to find out happiness. The blogger was proverb that the respondent could always lie to cover up something and that there are just many factors that could form the answers.The claim that a wealthier person is a happier, cannot therefore easily be accepted (Wolfers, 2008). The same blogger however posited that one who watches a munimentary about poverty in Africa, or about rape victims, pubic louse hospitals, etc. may indeed find himself happier than those persons in Africa. The difficulty of measuring happiness is still there so what one feels for the seeming unfortunate people may not actually be matt-up by these people. But in realizing that if the suicide indices are used as measures, he agreed that suicide is something almost exclusively committed by rich people. (Wolfers, 2008) Another ar gument that would show the lack of relationship between poverty (or wealth) happiness (or lack of it) is the fact that lack of happiness could be a striation for both(prenominal) the rich and the poor. Another blogger to that economics of happiness reacted by quoting Herodotus who said, Call no man happy until he is dead. Expressing his disbelief of the analysis, because of bad methodology, vague terminology, too-eager conclusions, and failure to mention contradictory studies, which is believer to be many, the blogger was positive the absence of relationship between wealth and happiness.This latter blogger however realized that the misery of having money worries which can seep into and poison every aspect of ones life. She therefore admitted having enough money so that one does not have to worry, can really help but beyond that, she does not see any reason to believe, based on personal experience, that people with lots of money are that much happier than people with adequate mon ey (Wolfers, 2008). On other point of view, it may be argued that wealthier people are happier people.Wolfers (2008) presented a paper that shows a correlation between happiness and wealth which was claimed to be the result of studies crossways countries in a number of periods. It could however be argued statistically that correlation is not the same causality. If utilize to this case, there is no proof that happiness is causing people to become wealthy or that wealthier people are happier as result of better wealth. Moreover the responses were direct answers which may not really be reflective of the truth as respondents could always lie to hide some guilt.Since it is very hard to measure happiness, the result of the study could just not he held valid. It may be further argued that since everybody as a rule wants to be wealthy, should it not mean that happiness is desired as an effect? Everybody may just want to satisfy a need which cannot be misinterpreted as wanting to become we althy but the result need not be happiness always. A human being is borne to have ask and that he or she has all the right to prepare for the future. There however is limit to what money can buy. It cannot buy a good sleep although it may be able to buy a good bed. I can buy amusement but it cannot buy happiness.It can be concluded that poverty and happiness belong to different realms. Although a correlation may be established between the two concepts, the relationship need not be causative as there other factors that must be considered including the manner in which happiness is measured. In certain cases, poverty may bring simplicity of attaining ones satisfaction of ones need and hence the struggle to have more is decrease and this could mean greater acceptability for events that are happening in ones life. To have wealth is however not bad even in the absence of its necessary relation to happiness.Man is both material and social whereby he needs both material things and but at the end of the day, happiness appears to be ultimate desire of all people. If becoming wealthy or avoiding poverty is believed to be the actor to attain happiness, the same should be respected as happiness is also personal and therefore a choice to be made.ReferencesBlinkered Thinker (n. d) Poverty Equals Happiness? , www document URL, http//blinkeredthinker. com/2006/12/20/169/, Accessed may 2, 2008 Think Centre (2007) Suicide rate climbs despite good times (Insight Down South), www document URL http//www. thinkcentre. org/article. cfm?ArticleID=2877 , Accessed May 2, 2008 WHO (2008) Suicide Rates per 100, 000, www document URL http//www. who. int/mental_health/prevention/suicide/suiciderates/en/, Accessed May 2, 2008 Wolfers (2008) The Economics of Happiness, Part 4 Are Rich People Happier than Poor People? , parvenu York Times www document URL,http//freakonomics. blogs. nytimes. com/2008/04/22/the-economics-of-happiness-part-4-are-rich-people-happier-than-poor-people/, Accesse d May 2, 2008 Xianhang Zhang (2005) Poverty and Happiness, www document URL, http//www. mail-archive. com/emailprotected gmu. edu/msg00806. html, Accessed May 2, 2008

Psychological Portraiture Essay Example for Free

Psychological Portraiture EssayAnother distingished legacy that Halsman left back was essentially a product of a probing psychologist in him who could treat his subjects with a deep penetration and empathy and could make them reveal their characters in profound and extraordinary shades, which he eventually employed superbly in his works of photography.Also, with courteous manners, sauve witticism and stylish European accents, Halsman could establish an immediate connect with his American subjects (who, incidentally, dealt with psychology with an amused cynicism, of sorts) which greatly facilitated him to extricate the very best out of his subjects with rare aplomb and liveliness. In fact, he employed an extremely innovative technique, when he worked on a photography session with Marilyn Monroe, on an principal(prenominal) assignment from Life.He made her stand in a corner and took around 40 50 snapshots, as encircled by few admiring men, Monroe could put her spontaneous and effortless best as she smiled, flirted, giggled and wriggled with channelize and enjoyed herself superbly, there-by, almost unknowingly, giving a large number of photo-opportunities to Halsman, who utilised the same to rare perfection. (Jones, 2001)While Halsman could slyly avoid any livid or lurid references of any physical assests of his character (an off-shoot of his somewhat traditional disposition? ), he was a modernist enough in his approach to employ all his subtle finery and mundanity to provoke his subjects into actually emoting the best reactions which, in effect, constituted the very staple of his subject of portraiture photography, saving him world-wide recognition and acclaim.

The Role Of Media Essay Example for Free

The business office Of Media EssayInformation is a very properly tool. One who controls it can manipulate the outcome of most events in inn. The media possesses this enviable authority to independently beam information on all things significant to everyone. Politics, entertainment, sports, health, current events, and government are the facets of civil society that the media postulate to cover. It has a significant role in all these aspects to transmit every detail of information to the public. In government, the media plays an even bigger role. It serves as a bridge between government leaders and the mess. The media is tasked with major responsibilities to usage as broadcaster, educator, and watchdog.As a broadcaster, the media gathers noteworthy information about every action our government is carrying out. It unavoidably to convey the news with unequivocal objectivity with one major goal- bring the truth to the state. As an educator, the media holds the province to i nstruct the public on complex governmental issues. The process and system of government policies and regulations need to be put in plain words so the majority of the citizens will comprehend. This will empower the people and encourage them to uphold their rights and privileges.As a watchdog, the media scrutinizes every decision the government makes. It acts as the eyes and ears of society taking all information into consideration and exposes them to the public for review. The media compels government officials to be always accountable to the people who placed them in their respective positions. The media has not really changed much.Throughout the years, it has remained true to the mission it has set to undertake. The muckrakers of the preceding(a) and the journalists of present times have stood their ground and remained steadfast. The media has withstood the test of time and continued to dedicate its existence in the service of the people. It has its fair share of triumphs and disa ppointments. The media has dedicated its whole life in the pursuit of the truth.Works CitedThe Role of Media in Democracy A Strategic Approach. Technical Publication Series. Jun. 1999 pg 3. Center for Democracy and Governance thorax for Global Programs, Field Support, and Research US Agency for International Development.Paletz, David L. The Media in American Politics limit and Consequences. New York Longman, 1999.Rasky, Susan. Informing Democracy The Role of Media in Shaping American Policy and Public Opinion. USINFO- The join States Department of State. U.S. Department of States Bureau of International Information Programs. 12 Dec. 2004. http//usinfo.state.gov/usinfo/USINFO/Products/Webchats/rasky_11_dec_2006.html

The Crisis Manchuria And Abyssinia

The Crisis Manchuria And AbyssiniaI completely harmonize with this judgment, since the Manchurian and Abyssinian crisis did in fact fatally ricketyen the fusion of Nations. One could almost argue that both crises led to the last of the federation, as they could be seen as the first links in a set up of events that led to the support conception War, which was to be totally hold opened by the birth of the compact of Nations. The unify prove to be incompetent, as it could non screw with both crises effectively. For instance, It was queenless against japan (initiator of the Manchurian crisis) and Italy (initiator of the Abyssinian crisis), due to the league having no regular army to enforce its policies (It could only impose sanctions and a criminalise from the League), thence pauseing itself, and at long last leading to its destruction. However, it is also important to identify the weaknesses of the League that existed prior, as they may have guided the League into its fatal state.The devastation of the First World War horrified countries worldwide, with people living in charge and anguish, hoping to never encounter such an event again. To their salvation, the League of Nations was created, promising to maintain global peace and to prevent a Second World War. The League was established in 1919, under the sheer will of chairperson Wilson, who wanted the League to be seen as a type of World Parliament. Here, international disputes or interests could be discussed formally, without the violent use of force. He also hoped that the League would stop all contends, improve peoples lives and jobs, improve macrocosm health, put an end to slavery, persuade nations to agree to disarmament (as this would make war impossible) and to enforce the Treaty of Versailles which acted as a peace treaty. Countries were in favor of these ideas, resulting in forty-two countries joining the League initially, which ascended to around threescore countries in the 19 30s, strengthening the Leagues international power. However, Even though the intentions of the League were positive, it failed mis epochbly, as the League was incapable to deal with the major international disputes as it promised it could. The late 1930s put the Leagues true power to the test. During this decade, there was a world-wide stinting Depression, where Japan was majorly affected. Japans government failed to deal with the Depression, and indeed decided that it would have to occupy the whole of Manchuria (In China) as an only solution. This would have enabled Japan to have access to the regions valuable resources of coal and iron in an era where it was already difficult to purchase these indispensable raw materials. Japan, to it convenience, was soon provided with an opportunity to invade Manchuria. On 18 September 1931 a bomb exploded on the railway close to Mukden, where Chinese and Japanese soldiers were stationed. Japan instantly blamed on the Chinese, which instantly provided the desired excuse for Japan to occupy Mukden and the entire southerly Manchuria. China being a member of the League of Nations (Japan was too) desperately plead the League to help. Due to the weak organization of the League, the response to Chinas problem almost took an entire year. However, in response the council of the League asked Japan to claim its back to the railway region in Mukden. However, Japan decided not to do so, and turned Manchuria into a Satellite state of Manchukuo. Shortly after, Japan left-hand(a) the League of Nations, as it had no more get along interests in the League. Its essential trades were offered by the USA indeed the Leagues policy of sanctions was ineffective, as the USA never fall in the League of Nations, gift Japan no economical punishment. The Geneva Protocol1was never ratified, therefore the League did not have an army to resign military action mechanism, and war was absolutely out of the question. Britain (Head of the League o f Nations), however, did not urge to take action against Japan, since neither the Government nor the people desired to fight a war purely without central British interests. Therefore the league was powerless in taking action against Japan, fatally enervating it. Some members of the League noticed this failure and realized how ineffective the League of Nations really is, and thus left the League, modify it further. The Great Powers of the League2were unwilling use force against Japan, because of the self interest of a Great power (Britain) in Japans actions. Britain had secretly supported Japan and shared sympathy with Japanese action in Manchuria. And similar to Japan, Britain had some commercial interests in China, which were threatened by the ongoing chaos and well-bred wars. Therefore Japans invasion seemed to restore order to this issue, pleasing the British. This weakened the League, as the League could not take any action against Japan since a Great Power of the League secre tly supported its actions.A few years later, in Europe, another fairly similar crisis began. Italy was trying to distract its people from the economic Depression, and therefore wanted to erect a large empire in Northern Africa. By incursive Abyssinia, Italy would not only be provided with land for Italian settlers, but also connect Italian Somaliland with Eritrea, therefore putting most of the Horn-region of Africa under Italian rule. Mussolini3, by 1932, began his plans to invade Abyssinia, and On December 1934 Italian forces began to shake up with Abyssinian troops and shortly after, in October, the long-desired invasion of Abyssinia began. Mussolini had no doubt that neither Britain nor France would intervene with his plans, giving him the finished invasion plan and opportunity. However, while the French Foreign Minister, Laval, was promising Mussolini a free hand, Britain tried by all means necessary to find a compromise. Britain wanted to offer Mussolini a territorial fee e lsewhere or negotiate an arrangement which would give Italy effective control over Abyssinia avoiding a nominal Annexation. This already suggests that the Abyssinian crisis fatally weakened the League of Nations, since the League changed its policies (a Volte-face) when France supported the invasion and mostly when Britain offered Italy other suggestions of gaining territory. The policies of the League were collapsing and with it the league.Italy neglected the offers suggested by Britain and pursued its invasion of Abyssinia. In 18 October, the League condemned Mussolini and imposed a ban on weapon gross revenue along with a gradually ascending program of sanctions. This had no effect, hence rendering the League powerless and fatally weakening the League. In the meantime, Britain and France were searching for an alternative compromise to Italys invasion. capital of South Dakota Laval and British Foreign Minister, Sir Samuel Hoare, created a secret plan that may have been suitable f or Mussolini. It involved giving Italy control over only two-thirds of Abyssinia. However, the plan was secretive and illegal and it somehow leaked into the French Press, which in the end resulted in the resignation of Sir Hoare and the dropping of the plan. In addition, the League did not ban any oil exports to Italy, which was a vital trade, and the Suez Canal, where Italian ships could drift through, was refused to be closed because Britain feared war. Mussolini had no obstacles in his way and by May 1936 had invade Abyssinia. Hence no action was taken against the invasion of Abyssinia, weakening the league, as it was powerless and ineffective in stopping the invasion. Both Powers Britain and France also feared the diplomatic consequences of alienating Italy over Abyssinia.Not only did the Abyssinian Crisis fatally weaken the League, but also provide Hitler with an ideal opportunity to remilitarize the Rhineland and recreate an all-powerful Nazi-Germany. This was to be entirely prevented by the League, as the Treaty of Versailles did not allow Germany to have an army, since she already began the First World War. Furthermore, the Franco-Italian familiarity was destroyed and replaced by the Rome-Berlin Alliance ( bloc), which enabled Hitler to absorb Austria in 1938 without Italian opposition, creating an even more powerful Germany. The Axis also threatened British and French communication in the Mediterranean, which would ultimately weaken the potential in future response, under German or even Japanese aggression. Soon after, Germany gathered sufficient power and the Second World War was inevitable. Overall, this fatally weakened the League of Nations and ultimately led to its destruction, because Germany was able to rebuild and become a strong Power again which later on led to the Second World War, where both were to be entirely prevented by the League. Members of the League realized ineffectiveness of the League and instead left the League to prepare for war, fatally weakening the League as it no longer had loyal members. The League created more problems than solutions, weakening itself, since it should have been in control which it was not. Instead of finding an effective solution to cipher the crisis, it somehow found a way to damage itself and put itself under risk, ultimately destroying it.The Manchurian and Abyssinian crisis did in fact fatally weaken the League of Nations. One could almost argue that both crises led to the destruction of the League, as they could be seen as the first links in a chain of events that led to the Second World War, which was to be entirely prevented by the birth of the League of Nations. The League proved to be incompetent, as it could not deal with both crises effectively. For instance, it was powerless against Japan in its invasion of Manchuria, since the League had no army to fight against Japanese aggression. Also the self interest Britain had in Manchuria provided Japan with protection, t herefore fatally weakening the League. In the Abyssinian crisis, the League was powerless once more and could not take any action against Italy as they favored Italy (to support against Nazi-Germany) rather than the loss of Abyssinia. It tried to implement sanctions and a ban on sales of weapons, but this had no effect on Italy. Due to the failure in Abyssinia, Germany was capable of rebuilding, and thus ultimately leading to a Second World War. Members of knew that a Second World Was threatened, hence fatally weakening the League as it no longer had loyal members. The Abyssinian and Manchurian crises fatally weakened the League of Nations and ultimately led to its destruction.

Sub Cultures From Which Criminal Behaviour Arises Criminology Essay

Sub Cultures From Which Criminal Behaviour Arises Criminology EssayClarke et al. describe conclusion as the trend societal relations of a group argon constructed, acknowledged and interpreted by its members. A sub kitchen-gardening differs in its focal concerns put upd lead also donation some things in common with the ending from which it derives also cognise as the parent culture. Subcultures must exhibit a unique structure focused on reliable activities, beliefs and so on, that visibly distinguish them. Nevertheless, as they are sub-sets, there must be significant things that lodge them with the parent culture. For example, the Kray twins were part of a criminal subculture and the workings single out culture in eastern London. Subcultures can be characterized by a characteristic language, music taste, dress sense, hairstyle and spiritednessstyle understood and divided by its members. Examples include rockers, Rastafarians or punks. Criminal subcultures on the diff erent hand, whitethorn share most of these characteristics, but will hold an alternative value system that contracts delinquent behaviour. Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin state that a delinquent subculture is bingle in which certain forms of delinquent activity are essential requirements for the performance of the overabundant roles supported by the subculture (1960 7). Criminal subcultures are normally set up among lower class young antherals from large urban areas (Cloward Ohlin, 1960 Croall, 1998). This attempt will look at a brief history of Robert Mertons work and the input of the Chicago shallow and associated theorists much(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) as Edwin Sutherland to provide an understanding of how and why the Statesn sub heathen theories unquestionable thereafter. These approaches will be looked upon in assessing the works of Albert Cohen (1955) and Cloward and Ohlin (1960). Other works will be discussed such as Gresham Sykes and David Matza (1957) an d Walter Miller (1958) to critique American subcultural theories. Finally, this shall be followed by work that emerged from Britain including David D proclaimes and the Birmingham University Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies (CCCS). Other key factors influencing the nature of subcultures will be raised in order to provide a substantiated conclusion.Croall (1998) and Newburn (2007) both plead that American subcultural hypothesis emerged from research carried out by the Chicago School in the 1930s on cultures, street life and delinquent gangs in Chicago. It was imbed that certain subcultures in hostel deal different value and attitudes that tin towards horror and violence. Influential theorists such as Edwin Sutherland (1937) aimed to explain the nature and development of youth subcultures by suggesting that crime is a learned behaviour that takes place in specific groups with different behaviours, attitudes and peer group pressures. He argued further that those exposed to more criminal than non-criminal values were more likely to adopt criminal values learnt through a process of differential association. This includes the techniques of committing a crime, motives, drives and rationalizations associated with crime. This differential association may differ in terms of frequency, duration, priority and intensity. Individuals indeed become criminal due to an increased number of definitions favourable to breaking the law over definitions unfavourable to violations (Fulcher Scott, 2003 White Haines, 2004 OBrien Yar, 2008).On the contrary, Robert Merton developed the Strain Theory (1938) to expand upon the judgment of anomie first argued by Durkheim who suggested that anomie is a state of normlessness in society. Merton attempted to explain the sectionalization of cultural and well-disposed structure that accompanied the Great Depression of 1930s America (Burke, 2005). Social institutions such as the vision media, education system and the state stressed that warmness class secular rewards and winner of the American Dream were achievable goals for individuals who worked hard to strain them, as argued by Merton. Unfortunately, working class male youths had different institutional agent available to them. Moreover, they were ill prepared as they were non amicableized to stick with in a middle class environment. They experienced strains associated with inappropriate structural opportunities to achieve culturally be goals. For that reason, these blocked opportunities lead some stack to form a delinquent subculture as a corporal solution to pursue alternative criminal avenues. Mertons theory therefore indicates that strains do not reside in spite of appearance the individual but are produced by wider social processes and structures (Croall, 1998, Bilton et al. 2002). Merton developed five different ways in which individuals respond conformism- populate accept the culturally defined goals and institutionalized means of attaining them innovation- individuals accept the culturally defined goals but lack the institutionalized means to attain them and therefore resort to crime ritualism- people accept the naturally defined goals but cannot sustain them but continue to pursue institutional mean no matter of the outcome retreatism- people reject both the culturally defined goals and institutionalized means of attaining them and retreat from society in different ways such as substance abuse and rebellionism- people substitute their own cultural goals and institutionalized means in place of the conventional goals and means of achieving them (White Haines, 2004 Burke, 2005 Newburn, 2007). Merton is criticized for accepting the status quo and assume that there is a consensus amongst every oneness to pursue the middle class cultural goals of ambition, success and achievement, rather than acknowledging how effective people define society and its goals. Also, the focus is merely upon working class crim e thus Merton accepts the official put down crime statistics which suggest that crime is mostly committed by the working class. This suggests that the strain theory fails to deem structural inequalities for example how the capitalist system marginalizes and labels lower classes and criminalizes their activities. In addition to this Merton ignores other crimes like sportsmanlike collar or corporate crimes which are equally or even more damaging to society. Finally, though there may be some strain underpinning criminal behaviour, Merton does not fully explain why some individuals respond with delinquent behaviour and others do not (White Haines, 2004, Fawbert, 2013).A different argument is provided by Albert Cohen in Delinquent Boys (1955) who developed the subcultural theory of Status Frustration. He criticized Merton for focusing on acquisitive situation crime alone. Cohen argues that lower-class boys fail to attain the middle-class standards of success, suffer cultural depriva tion, unemployment, educational failure and humiliated homes. For Cohen, the school was where lower class youth understood their choices were constrained by society (White Haines, 2004). As a result, they experience status frustration and reject mainstream goals. A delinquent subculture is form as a corporate response to these social problems. Individuals invert middle class values and therefore engage in negativistic spiteful crimes such as vandalism in search for status rather than material success (Bilton et al. 2002 Terpstra, 2006, Fawbert, 2013). This flavor is supported by Paul Willis study Learning to Labour (1981). Walter B. Miller disagrees with Cohens view that delinquents value middle class beliefs and invert them by acting out their frustration via negativistic crime. Miller developed the lower-class cultural theory (1958) that focused on gang delinquency and argued that the lower class has a separate, identifiable culture distinct from the culture of the middle cla ss. (p.27). He argues that it has its own value system which naturally produces crime, thus a young person who conforms to lower-class values automatically becomes criminal. According to Miller (1958) lower-class culture is characterized by focal concerns toughness, smartness, autonomy, excitement, fate and trouble. Therefore, a criminal subculture stands independently from middle-class culture and draws its beliefs and practices from its parent lower class culture (Glick, 2005 Terpstra, 2006).Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin (1960) criticize Albert Cohen for failing to explain why different types of delinquency take different forms. They argue that all classes share the same societal goals of success and wealth, however, the working class is deprived of gaining these goals. Illegitimate opportunity structures will arise in situations where the cultural goals are still pursued, but legitimate opportunities are lacking. Cloward and Ohlin therefore accept Mertons view that denied legi timate access to available opportunities results in working class criminality. Cloward and Ohlin stress that delinquents have withdrawn their support from established norms and have invested officially forbidden norms of conduct with a claim to genuineness in the light of their special situation (1960 19-20). Cloward and Ohlin suggest working class youth will share their own delinquent subcultural values dependent on different environments that provide different opportunities for crime (White Haines, 2004 Burke, 2005 Glick, 2005, Shildrick, 2006). Cloward and Ohlin (1960) provide three different types of subcultures which are a form or adaptation from the blocked opportunities given by the dominant social order. First is the criminal subculture found in areas with a pre-existing criminal culture whereby prestige is allocated to those who attain material success via illegal means of securing income such as property theft. To conform to within this subculture, one should cultivate appropriate connectionsandpromote an apprenticeship with older and successful offenders (1960 23). Second is the conflict subculture found in areas with high gang warfare and where the aim is to acquire a reputation for toughness and ravaging violence (1960 25). The manipulation of violence allows for individuals to gain status and prestige amongst their peers. The third type is retreatist subculture and it involves those that have failed to follow both legitimately or otherwise a double failure. Individuals or groups engage in a hedonistic existence and are culturally and socially detached from the life-style and everyday preoccupations of members of the conventional piece (1960 25). Alcohol or drug consumption becomes a way of life. All three subcultures are quasi(prenominal)ly in that norms that guide behaviour are opposite to the norms of mainstream society. Cloward and Ohlin accept that these subcultures may sometimes overlap one another but overall their theory shows how working class delinquency is not due to material gain totally (Croall, 1998 Newburn, 2007 Fawbert, 2013).Alternatively, David Matza 1964 argued that subcultural theory was guilty of over-predicting delinquency and ignoring human agency by providing an over deterministic view of human behaviour as influenced by society. Gresham Sykes and David Matza (1957) developed the Delinquency and Drift Theory that rejects subcultural theories and argues that working class youth subcultures form as a way of expressing particular subterranean values such as hedonism, adventure, thrill seeking and risk. Skyes and Matza argue that these are shared with mainstream society but expressed in different contexts. Mainstream society expresses these values and deferred gratification during their leisure time, whereas delinquents express these at the wrong time and place. Subcultures are seen to disregard the work ethic and enjoy pleasures that have not been earned through work (Fulcher and Scott, 2003). F urther, similar to Cohens view, delinquents do not fully reject middle class goals, but regularly use techniques of counteraction or deviance disavowal to justify their criminal actions (Shields Whitehall, 1994). unmatchable technique is the denial of responsibility such as suggesting that their action was accidental or blame it on their parents. Second is the denial of the victim by suggesting that the victim deserved it. Third is the denial of injury which involves the criminal refuting that their behaviour caused any real molest and was just for fun. Fourth, is condemning the condemners by suggesting that the police are corrupt for example. Lastly, an appeal to higher loyalties whereby other norms other than legal ones are more important and are worth protecting loved ones even if it means perverting the law (White Haines, 2004 Glick, 2005 Newburn, 2007 Fawbert, 2013).All in all, Matza and Sykes suggest that norms and values of subculture allow for criminality but do not dem and it, particularly from the lower working class. Mainstream values influence criminals, thus subculture of delinquency is loose-knit as only a few members are full time committed and most drift between conformity and deviance (Fawbert, 2013 and Skyes Matza, 1957 Croall, 1998 Newburn, 2007). On the other hand, Skyes and Matza are criticized by Newburn (2007) and Downes (1966) for denying that there are distinct groups with their own distinctive values. Instead, they suggest that all people share delinquent subcultural values.The subcultural theories that have been looked at developed in America and were not always relevant to Britain where violent or criminal gangs were rarer. British work on subcultures developed from the work by Birmingham Universitys Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies (CCCS) established by Richard Hoggart in 1964, which criticized American approaches. The CCCS followed a Marxist perspective and focused on subcultures based around particular styles such a s teds, rockers, bootboys and so forth. Rather than individual problems of status, the Birmingham school regarded subcultures as a working class young people solution to the problematic societal conditions. They argued that youth may face the double failure of not creation able to achieve the goals of their parent culture or dominant culture as each new(a) generation faces its own problems regarding local economic conditions. For example Stan Cohen (1972) suggested that working class youth subcultures in sixties and 70s Britain developed due to housing and employment changes that affected the working class as a whole. Communities broke down and many traditional jobs disappeared. Thus he argues that the latent function of subcultures is to express and resolve the contradictions on the fence(p) in the parent culture (Clarke et al., 1976, Croall, 1998 Young, 2006).Croall (1998) argues that David Downes (1966) who carried out work on criminal youths in London found that they did n ot conform to the image suggested by American subcultural theorists, Cohen and Cloward Ohlin. Instead, delinquent activities were seen as fun mostly by youth with poor education and they did not display frustration at their lack of success. Rather than macrocosm opposed to mainstream values they were dissociated from middle class values within school or work settings. These youths formed a subculture where delinquent activities were an appealing solution to a leisure problem that simply occurred in their social circumstances. This is because they could not participate in middle class leisure pursuits (Glick, 2005, Muncie, 2009). In addition to this, Downes also argues that Matzas ensample under predicted delinquency.It appears as though crime is a working class male phenomenon, but this may be because of bourgeois assumptions about criminality. Crime statistics are measured in a positivist way and have shown that the lower working class have a greater carryency to commit crime. Moreover, it is the powerful class that puts pressure on the police and the criminal justice system to create a culture that serves their interest and not attract the label of criminality. One problem with subcultural theories as a whole is that they tend to ignore certain aspects linked to culture such as gender and ethnicity as well as the conflicts between dominant and subordinate groups. In addition to this, Heidensohn also criticizes subcultural theories for determinism, selectivity, conformity and anomie (Fulcher Scott, 2003 Young, 2006 Newburn, 2007). Other points to reckon include the effect of labeling individuals as delinquent which may result in a process of self-fulfilling prophecy. One example of this is Jock Youngs study (1971) which found that 1960s hippie marijuana users, who took drugs as a social activity, developed a subculture that valued drug consumption only after they were labeled and targeted by the police. Regarding the mass media, moral panics are created through the amplified exposure of negative images of subcultures. These too exaggerate the activities of subculture and further reinforce dominant values and beliefs. Nevertheless, these theories have taken away the blame on the individual, as provided by classical theories of crime, and shifted it to social structures. Merton emphasized the strain between goals and means and the way criminal means would be used to attain goals where legitimate means such as education are lacking. Subcultural approaches by Cohen and Cloward and Ohlin, acknowledged the formation of subcultures as a response to a lack of status and opportunities supplied by cultural goals (White Haines, 2004 Clarke et al, 2006).